Cardiovascular Endocrinology: An Overview on Interplay of Hormones, Developmental Programming, and Cardiovascular Diseases

Abstract

Cardiovascular endocrinology is a rapidly evolving field that investigates the complex interplay between the endocrine and cardiovascular systems. This multidisciplinary area of study is essential for understanding how hormonal imbalances can influence cardiovascular health and disease. The endocrine system, through the secretion of hormones, plays a critical role in regulating cardiovascular functions such as blood pressure, heart rate (HR), and vascular tone. Conversely, cardiovascular events can impact hormone production and release, highlighting the bidirectional communication between these systems. This review explores the physiological interactions and pathophysiological consequences of disruptions in this delicate balance, with a focus on key hormones such as vitamin D, growth hormone, and thyroid hormones, and their implications for cardiovascular health. The review also delves into the role of developmental programming in shaping cardiovascular health, emphasizing the impact of early life factors such as maternal nutrition, stress, and environmental exposures on long-term cardiovascular outcomes. Additionally, it examines the influence of sex hormones, lipoprotein metabolism, and emerging research areas such as the gut microbiome and novel biomarkers on cardiovascular disease (CVD) risk. Clinical studies, including landmark trials like the Framingham heart study (FHS) and the Women’s Health Initiative, are discussed to highlight the translation of research findings into clinical practice. The review concludes by addressing the challenges and future directions in cardiovascular endocrinology, underscoring the need for ongoing research to develop effective interventions and improve patient outcomes.